Linking Assessment to Learning Outcomes
Topic 1: Learning Aims and Outcomes
Linking Assessment to Learning Outcomes
Throughout the course, you can assess how well students are meeting the learning outcomes. Ongoing assessment that helps guide your instruction is formative assessment. For example, if students are unable to answer comprehension questions after a reading, this is a good sign that the reading was too difficult. You can go back to the text and reteach it. To do this, you can choose key words and have students work with them first, or you can decide that the level of the text is too high and find another text. Formative assessment will keep your teaching on track.
At different points in the course, you will also give some kind of summative assessment in order to keep a record of each student's performance. Summative assessments of reading often involve reading and answering comprehension questions, or writing a response to a reading (to show understanding). There are various ways you can assess your students' reading. See the chart below for two examples of learning outcomes, activities that support the learning outcomes, and possible ways to do formative and summative assessments.
Learning Outcome Classroom Activity Assessment Examples
Students can read information about future goals 1. Match vocabulary to pictures or definitions.
2. Read online posts about student's future goals.
3. Complete a graphic organizer about one student's future goals.
Formative
1. Observe students as they ask and answer questions. Address misunderstandings as a class.
2. Have students create a poster of their graphic organizer. Hang it in the class and discuss it.
Summative
1. Give students multiple choice test items using the vocabulary and structure of the unit.
2. Have students read the same kind of text about different people. Use similar comprehension activities.
Students can read and understand postcards about vacations.
1. Match a photo of an activity to the text on a postcard.
2. Answer questions about the details on the postcards.
3. Write a postcard about a vacation.
Formative 1. Teach more activities if photo matching is too easy (or fewer if too challenging).
2. Students exchange postcards. They must read and respond, giving each other feedback about what they understood.
Summative
1. Read and reply to a postcard.
2. Read postcards. Then answer comprehension test items.
Topic 2: Assessing Reading
Look at the sample textbook activities. Think about how they can be used to assess students. Then read the text.
What to Assess
You want to assess the skills and abilities required to meet the learning outcome. There are several skills and abilities required of proficient readers.
Decoding skills
Understanding structure
Understanding meaning
Application
Extensive reading
Improving reading rate
1. Decoding skills involve students actually reading words. First, students learn that letters, or groups of letters, represent sounds. They can put the letters/sounds together to read words. There are a number of ways to assess the ability to decode. Look at the example activities on the left. Activity A is a recognition activity. Students cross out the letter that is different. This type of assessment activity is appropriate for beginning readers. Another way to assess letters and sounds is to have students match pictures with letters, or have students read aloud.
2. Understanding structure is another part of reading. Students need to understand both grammatical and text structure to read effectively. In Activity B, students use their understanding of grammar to complete the cloze activity. Text structure can be different in different languages. It is important to help students recognize different aspects of text structure. For example, in English, paragraphs usually have a topic sentence that tells the reader the main idea of the paragraph. When students can identify the topic sentence, it is easier to understand the paragraph. You can assess understanding of grammatical or text structure with activities, such as:
matching two parts of a sentence
determining the correct word forms
choosing appropriate topic sentences for paragraphs
Topic 2: Assessing Reading
Look at the sample textbook activities. Think about the type of processing students need to use for each. Then read the text.
3. Understanding meaning is also known as comprehension. Students use their decoding skills and their understanding of structure to make meaning out of an entire text. Students use interactive processing to understand meaning. They switch between top-down and bottom-up processing to show they understand both the gist and the supporting details. Look again at the example activity. Students first skim (top-down processing strategy) to answer an open-ended question about the main ideas. Then they read the email again and scan (bottom-up processing strategy) for the details in the text.
4. Application is using information to do something. Students show they can apply information by labeling diagrams or completing graphic organizers. Look at the example in Topic 1, screens 1 and 2. The students read about three different students (Inna from Russia, Nora from Mexico, and Wenyi from China). Then they completed a chart using information from what they read. This activity assesses application.
Topic 2: Assessing Reading
Look at the reading log. Think about how you can use this in your classroom.
5. Extensive reading can help students with their reading fluency. Reading longer texts and learning to enjoy reading develops general language skills. Students often do extensive reading outside of class. They may read stories or articles. You can assess them with different tools, such as with a reading log.
Look at the reading log again. Reading logs give students a place to record information about their reading. Reading logs often contain some of the following information:
the date
the type of text (magazine, book, newspaper, website, etc.)
the topic or main idea of the text
how long the student read
new vocabulary words the student would like to review
You can also ask students to write a summary of what they read. When students write summaries, they give a shorter version of the text, including the main ideas. This helps them remember the text. It also shows they understand the text.
6. Improving reading rate is a challenge for many students. Reading rate is a measure of how fast they read. Many students are slow readers of English. However, the more they read, the faster they will become.
One way to assess their reading rate is with a timed reading log. This log can be similar to the one on the screen, but you can add a column for time/rate. Students record the time it takes to read a text. Then they can count the words. This will give them their reading rate. When students record their rate, they often improve. They are motivated to improve their rates.
Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screens 4-7 as you read.
Sample Student Book Activities for Teaching Reading
The activities on screens 4-7 are common activities for teaching reading. They are organized into three groups according to their skill focus. The three groups are: decoding, understanding meaning, and application of information. Navigate to screens 4-7 to view activites. Refer to them as you read.
Decoding
Students need to be able to decode. This means they have to recognize letters and know their sounds. Minimal pair activities ask students to discriminate between letters that have similar shapes or sounds. Look at Activity 1 on screen 4. In this activity, students review pairs of letters that can be confusing. For example, they have to remember the shape and sound of b vs. p and l vs. r.
Other activities focus on recognizing words. In Activity 2 on screen 4, a word search activity, students review the names of colors. They need to remember the words and the way they are spelled to find them in the grid.
Readers decode throughout the reading process. Often textbooks have activities in the pre- and post-reading parts of the lesson that focus on decoding. The textbook pulls out letter pairs, words, or sentences for intensive practice.
Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screens 5-6 as you read.
Understanding Meaning
Students need to understand the meaning of what they read. Activities at each stage of a PDP lesson can help them with meaning. Sometimes they match a picture or summary to a reading passage. Sometimes a matching or checking exercise is a pre-reading activity. In Activity 3 on screen 5, upper primary school students look at, or preview, a text. They look at the picture and predict content. In this way, they activate background knowledge. Checking the type of text shows they understand the text structure. They also understand the text type or genre. Identifying the genre uses top-down processing.
In Activity 4 on screen 5, students read a text and then they scan for specific information. They underline the sentences that give them the answers while they are scanning. Scanning uses bottom-up processing. This is a post-reading activity that shows they understand the meaning of what they read. Underlining or circling makes the activity more kinesthetic. Textbooks often ask comprehension questions after students read. In Activity 5 on screen 6, students read a letter and answer questions. You can have students work in pairs to make these activities more interactive. Other common textbook activities used to check understanding include:
true/false statements
cloze activities
multiple choice questions
Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screens 6-7 as you read. When you are finished, click Submit.
Application of Information
Students need to apply, or use, the information they get from reading. Some textbooks provide graphic organizers for this purpose. Graphic organizers can be a during- or post-reading activity. They help students to process and organize the information they are reading. It is similar to taking notes, and can help students learn how to take notes. Graphic organizers also appeal to visual and kinesthetic learners. In Activity 6 on screen 6, students read the text and write details in the chart.
In Activity 7 on screen 7, students read a text and then complete a brochure for a club. This is another way of using the information in a practical way. Students often complete a form or other type of document during reading, but they may also do it after they read.
Another way to use information is to have students apply it to their own lives. This is personalization. In Activity 8 on screen 7, students read about three interesting places to stay. Then they discuss where they want to stay and why.
[17/05, 00:50] Ms. Ema: Topic 2: Supplementing Materials
Look at the picture of microwave popcorn. Think about ways you can use this in your classroom. Then read the text.
Realia and Authentic Materials in the Classroom
In addition to the textbook, you can bring in various types of authentic materials or print-based realia. These can provide more reading practice on similar topics to your textbook topics.
Magazines and newspapers are very useful. Often there are photos with the stories or advertisements. You can cut out the photos and the articles and have students match the photos to the articles. In addition, you can remove the headlines from short articles or stories and have students match the headlines to them. You can also ask students to read about a famous person in a magazine or online and then fill out a timeline or some other form or diagram.
Many objects, especially products, have text on them. Look again at the picture. It shows the directions for making microwave popcorn. You can cut up directions like these and have students put them in order. Forms, instructions, and signs also use language in a natural context. Using this sort of realia with level-appropriate text can be fun. It can also motivate your students.
When using text-based realia or authentic material, it is important to choose texts that students will be able to read easily. They should not contain too many unknown words. If the material is too difficult, students may become frustrated.
Topic 2: Supplementing Materials
Read the text. Refer to screens 4-7 as you read.
Expanding Textbook Activities
The PDP lesson sequence is commonly used to teach reading. During the pre- and post- stages of a reading lesson students often use productive skills (speaking and writing) to preview the content, practice vocabulary, or activate background knowledge. Listening, another receptive skill, can also be used to help students read. Navigate to screens 4-7 to view the activities. Refer to them as you read about ways to expand the activities in the textbook.
Dictation To help students with decoding skills, you can dictate words as a review. You say the words and students write them. You may want to focus on words that help them discriminate between confusing letters (m/n, p/b). This is a good supplement to activities using word discrimination such as Activities 1 and 2 on screen 4.
Read aloud Many students will benefit from hearing the text read aloud. This can help them decode and understand meaning. It can also help them to improve their own reading rate.
Personalize Have students use the text as the beginning of a discussion about themselves. For example, in Activity 3 on screen 5, students read a postcard about a vacation. Have students write their own postcards about a vacation, then exchange them with a partner to discuss or answer. In Activity 8 on screen 7, students read about interesting hotels and choose the hotel they like the best.
Go online Get additional materials from online sources. Your students can read stories online at sites that are written for younger readers or for readers who are learning English. Often the stories can supplement your classroom topics.
Games After students have read a text, divide them into teams. Have the teams write comprehension questions or true/false statements. Then each team quizzes the other. You can also have students role-play situations in the readings and have other students guess who they are.
Topic 2: Supplementing Materials
Read the text. When you are finished, click Submit.
More Techniques and Activities to Improve Reading Skills
Reading is a complex process with many sub-skills. You can help students improve their skills and use reading strategies more effectively with the following ideas.
Timed readings Many students read very slowly in a second language. One way to help them increase their reading rate is to give timed readings. Students mark what they have completed in a set time period. They try to increase this amount with each timed exercise.
Reading in sections Students often worry about the meaning of each word or structure when they read. They do not always pay attention to the content. You can help them better understand by asking them to read in sections. After each section, ask students to write the topic of the paragraph, write questions, or talk to a partner.
Reading logs Students become better readers when they read more. Encourage extensive reading, or outside reading for pleasure. Have students keep a log of their reading. They can record what they read, how long they read, and new vocabulary.
Manipulatives Manipulatives such as picture cards or sentence strips can help students with decoding and with making connections between ideas. Write lines of dialog or a story on separate sentence strips or provide picture cards representing a story. Have students put them in order.
Dialog journals. Writing can help students become better readers. Students can exchange dialog journals with a partner. Each student writes in a journal, perhaps using a question prompt from the teacher. They exchange journals, read what their partner wrote, and write a response. Because students have written about the same prompt, they will recognize the topic.
Topic 1: Learning Aims and Outcomes
View the activites on screens 4 and 5. Read the first four activities. Students must write something in all of them, but do the activities practice writing skills? Think about your answer. Then read the text.
Identifying the Learning Aim of Activities
Each textbook activity has a learning aim. There is usually a sequence of activities that leads to a learning outcome. Your textbook will probably have many activities that require students to write something. Sometimes the learning aim of the activity is to help students develop writing skills. But other times the learning aim is not about writing. It is important to look at activities carefully and identify the learning aim. This will help you understand how the activities link to the learning outcome. It will also help you see which activities practice writing skills.
Look again at the four activities in I. Identifying the Learning Aim of Activities on screen 4. Each activity requires the students to write. However, not all of the activities help students develop writing skills. Think about the learning aim of each activity. Which develop writing skills and which develop other skills? Check your answers.
Activity 1 Students fill in the blanks with the past simple form of verbs. The learning aim is to practice forming the past simple. It is probably not a writing skills activity. It is a grammar practice activity.
Activity 2 Students write answers to questions about a listening text. The learning aim is for students to show they understand a phone conversation. They do that by writing answers to the questions. This is not a writing skills activity. It is a listening comprehension activity.
Activity 3 Students find and correct spelling mistakes. The learning aim of this activity is to help them develop the writing sub-skill of spelling.
Activity 4 Students analyze the organization of a text to identify ways that it is similar to or different from thank-you notes in their L1. The learning aim of this activity is to help students understand how written texts are organized in English. It is a writing skills activity.
You can ask yourself the following questions to judge whether an activity is practicing writing skills:
Does the activity help students learn writing skills or something else?
What aspect of writing will students focus on?
What writing sub-skills will students practice?
[17/05, 00:51] Ms. Ema: Topic 1: Learning Aims and Outcomes
Read the text. Refer to screens 4-5 as you read.
Linking Activities to Learning Outcomes
Read the three learning outcomes.
1. Students can write information in sentences using correct word order and can order the sentences in a paragraph logically.
2. Students can write a paragraph that states a preference about something and gives reasons for their preference.
3. Students can use periods, question marks, initial capital letters, and space between sentences in a paragraph correctly.
Learning outcomes for writing state the aspects of writing students will be able to do when they finish a sequence of activities, a unit, or a course. They are specific and detailed. Learning outcomes are not a list of activities students will do. Activities are the steps to help students achieve the learning outcome.
Look at the activity sequence in II. Linking Activities to Learning Outcomes on screen 5. Which learning outcome (1, 2, or 3) is this activity sequence linked to?
Look at the activity sequence again. For each activity ask yourself:
What are students expected to do in this activity?
What is the learning aim of each activity?
How does the activity help the students achieve the writing skills learning outcome?
The learning aims for these activities are for students to practice:
ordering words in a sentence correctly (Activity A)
ordering the information and writing a paragraph (Activity B)
writing a similar paragraph based on the model (Activity C)
The activity sequence is linked to learning outcome 1: Students can write information in sentences using correct word order and can order the sentences in a paragraph logically.
Topic 1: Learning Aims and Outcomes
Read the text. When you are finished, click Submit.
Linking Assessment to Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes help you decide what aspects of students' writing to assess. For example, imagine the learning outcome is: Students can use the words first, then, and finally correctly to tell a story with three events.
When you assess your students' writing, you will check that they used the words with the appropriate event and put them in the correct place in sentences.
You can assess learning in different ways. Formative assessment techniques include monitoring students during activities, and giving feedback on students' in-class tasks and homework. At the end of a unit, you can give students a summative task or test to assess their progress in the writing skills that you covered.
When assessing your students, it is possible to use the same writing activity for either formative or summative assessment. It depends on your purpose, not on the type of activity. For example, imagine a classroom activity where students add punctuation to sentences. While they work on this task, you can walk around the class and look at what students are doing. You can ask several students to put their work on the board. Then you can address any issues together as a class. This would be an example of formative assessment.
It is possible for you to use the same type of activity as a summative assessment. In this case, students complete the task alone and then turn in their papers for correction and grading. The task is the same, but the teacher uses it differently. Formative assessment helps the teacher improve lessons and focus more directly on students' needs. Summative assessment provides a record of students' learning and usually comes at the end of a unit or course.
Here are some examples of classroom activities and ways of assessing student learning. They are linked to the outcomes from screen 2.
Learning Outcome Classroom Activity Assessment Examples
Students can write a paragraph with correct punctuation. 1. Students choose cards with small or capital letters. They put them into gapped sentences.
2. Students choose the correct punctuation for sentences.
3. Students edit errors in capitalization and end punctuation.
Formative
1. Give pairs a poster with a paragraph for them to punctuate. They share their answers with another pair before sharing with the whole class.
2. Monitor in-class writing.
Summative
1. Students write a paragraph with correct punctuation.
2. Students insert punctuation in a paragraph.
Students can write information in sentences using correct word order and can order the sentences in a paragraph logically.
1. Word order warm-up activity: give each student one word of a sentence. Ask students to stand in order to create a sentence.
2. Students correct sentences with word order mistakes.
3. Put sentences from a paragraph on strips of paper. Students put strips in the correct order.
4. Students circle words in a paragraph that indicate the order of information.
Formative
1. Students choose sentences with correct word order from pairs of sentences.
2. Students write a well-ordered paragraph from a series of sentences.
Summative
1. Students write a paragraph from picture prompts (the order of the pictures can be mixed or in the correct order).
2. Students create a paragraph from word prompts on a timeline.
Students can describe something they like and give reasons why they like it.
1. Students choose a picture of something they like and talk about it with a partner.
2. Students listen to a partner talk about something they like and take notes. They present their partner's likes to the class or to a group.
3. Students find a partner who likes the same thing as they do and together they complete a graphic organizer of what they like and why.
Formative
1. Using a model, students write a paragraph about something they like.
2. Using grids created by others, students write a paragraph about something a classmate likes and why.
Summative
1. Students write a paragraph describing something they like and give reasons for liking it.
2. Students choose something they like and tell about it and why they like it.
[17/05, 00:52] Ms. Ema: Topic 2: Assessing Writing
Listen to Teacher A discuss her experience teaching writing. Think about these questions as you listen: How did her teacher assess her writing? Did she like it? Then read the text.
What to Assess
Effective writing communicates the writer's ideas clearly, accurately, and appropriately. The person reading the message can understand it.
When you assess students' writing, some things to evaluate are: the use of language (Is the language accurate and appropriate in the context?), the mechanics (Are words spelled correctly, and is punctuation used properly?), and the content and organization (Are the ideas expressed in a logical order?). You will see examples of activities to practice and assess these aspects of writing in Units 3 and 4.
As Teacher A explained, writing can be difficult to assess. Often teachers want to correct everything. It is important that your students are assessed only on specific aspects of writing. It is also important that students know what those aspects are before they begin writing.
The aspects of writing that are in the learning outcomes for the lesson or unit should be the ones you focus on in an assessment. You can also assess writing points from previous learning outcomes. For example, a long time after students begin learning punctuation rules, they may still need feedback on using them correctly. It is not usually a good idea to give feedback on points that the students have not yet learned. Consider their level. If the appropriate language is a higher level, students are probably not ready to learn it.
[17/05, 00:52] Ms. Ema: Topic 2: Assessing Writing
Read the text. Refer to screens 4-5 as you read.
How to Assess
Teachers can assess students' work. Students can also assess their own writing or their peers' writing. There are important benefits to self and peer assessment. Both help students improve their writing skills. They help students learn to read carefully and pay attention to details. Peer assessment can also encourage student collaboration.
Correction Sheets
At early writing stages, students can use correction sheets to self or peer assess. Correction sheets give the answers to controlled activities. They guide peer assessment so students do not highlight something incorrectly. Look at I. Correction Sheets on screen 4. The first example shows a correction sheet for an activity practicing mechanics. The second and third are correction sheets for Activities A and B from the sequence of activities you saw in Topic 1. Notice that the activities are controlled and have a limited number of answers (usually just one). Students are able to find and correct the errors themselves.
[17/05, 00:53] Ms. Ema: Topic 2: Assessing Writing
Read the text. When you are finished, click Submit.
Rubrics
Before students write, they need to know what aspects of their writing will be assessed and how their writing will be graded. A rubric can give them this information. The criteria listed in the rubric should link to the learning outcomes.
The rubric shows students what kind of score their work will receive (for example, a number or letter grade.) You will complete the same rubric when your students hand in final work. The completed rubric shows students exactly what they did well and what they still need to work on. In addition to teachers, a rubric can be used by students before they write and by peers who read each other's work.
Look at II. Rubrics on screen 5. The first rubric gives criteria for an assignment working on mechanics (capital letters, periods, question marks, and a space between sentences). It can be used to assess the first activity (Correction Sheet 1). The second rubric gives criteria for a freer writing activity (such as the email writing activity in Topic 1, Activity C). The students' email will be assessed on the content, organization, language use, and mechanics.
There are many online sites about rubrics. Type "rubrics" or "writing rubrics" in a search engine to find examples or rubric templates to help you create your own.
[17/05, 00:53] Ms. Ema: Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screens 4-7 as you read.
Sample Student Book Activities for Teaching Writing
The activities on screens 4-7 are common activities for teaching writing. They are organized into four groups according to their skill focus. The four groups are: mechanics, language, generating and organizing ideas, and writing and editing. Navigate to screens 4-7 to view the activities. Refer to them as you read.
Mechanics
Some beginning students need to learn to write upper- and lowercase letters correctly and neatly. They can learn by tracing and copying letters and words on worksheets. Look at Activity 1 on screen 4. In this activity, students learn how to form letters correctly as they follow arrows and trace the letters. Blank lined paper can be used for more practice. Teachers can download lined writing sheets and worksheets like these from the Internet.
Students need to practice spelling words correctly. In Activity 2 on screen 4, students unscramble letters to spell words. A scrambled word activity like this can be used to practice spelling the new vocabulary in a textbook unit. The words will determine the level. This can be a fun practice activity for students at all levels.
Students also need to learn and practice punctuation. In Activity 3 on screen 4, students practice rewriting texts using the correct letters and punctuation. In addition to practicing punctuation, this activity gives students more practice forming letters and spelling words because they rewrite the text. This type of activity can be used for all levels.
Language
Students need to practice the writing sub-skills of using accurate and appropriate vocabulary and grammar. Activities 4 and 5 on screen 5 show different ways to practice using sequence words to write about daily activities. In Activity 4, students choose the appropriate words to complete the paragraph. In Activity 5, a higher level task, students read two sentences then choose the best sequence word to combine the sentences into one sentence. This type of activity helps students learn to write longer, more complex sentences. In Activity 6, students are asked to choose the more appropriate word for use in a formal letter. This helps students become aware of the differences in language in formal written English.
[17/05, 00:54] Ms. Ema: Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screens 5-7 as you read.
Generating and Organizing Ideas
There are a variety of ways students can get ideas for writing. Teachers can link writing to the other skills work in textbook units. For example writing might take place in the final stage of a reading lesson. It is often the "Post-" in the PDP lesson sequence you read about in Unit 8, Teaching Reading. It might also take place at the end of a speaking lesson.
Because students usually read, speak, or listen before they write, students can:
use information they got from reading or listening texts
use ideas or information they discussed during a speaking activity
respond to ideas or information they read or listened to
Teachers can also help students generate ideas using graphic organizers. Activity 7 shows an example of a chart, one type of graphic organizer that can be use to think about advantages and disadvantages. You saw examples of other graphic organizers (a mind map and Venn diagram) in Unit 3, Topic 1.
Students also need to learn how to organize their thoughts or organize the information they want to write about. There are many activities students can do to help them learn how to do this. For example, in Activity 8, students put sentences in order to create logical paragraphs. This helps them notice how the language is used to organize ideas and information.
[17/05, 00:54] Ms. Ema: Topic 1: Techniques and Activities
Read the text. Refer to screen 7 as you read. When you are finished, click Submit.
Writing and Editing
After students complete pre-writing activities, they write. They may write texts such as a description, a letter, instructions, or a story. Writing activities help teachers see how students are developing as writers. Teachers can also see how well students are achieving the sub-skills stated in the learning outcomes.
Models and templates
Teachers can also use models and templates to help students write. Models show content and how it is organized. Students can read the text and see how the ideas are organized. Models also show features of mechanics and language appropriate to the genre of the text. Teachers can give students templates for writing all kinds of texts including personal letters, emails, or postcards. Templates guide organization and layout.
Activity 9 is from an elementary school textbook for young learners. Earlier in the unit, students read about Susan describing a present she received. This activity gives a model for writing about a present. Then, to the right of the model, students can draw their own present and use the template to write a description of their present.
Student involvement in the writing process
Students need practice to become good at reviewing and editing. Editing skills help students assess their own and others' writing. In Activity 10, students find and label mistakes in mechanics and language.
Teachers can also give students correction sheets. As you saw in Unit 2, correction sheets give answers to controlled activities. Students learn to revise writing themselves by comparing their work with the correction sheet. Students can also use rubrics to guide their review. A rubric tells students what aspects of writing they should focus on. Look again at the three correction sheets and three rubrics from Unit 2, Topic 2.
The Peer Review Sheet in Activity 11 is also a tool to guide peer review and feedback. It is more general than a rubric. Students can use it to give feedback on any piece of writing.
